Bharatanatyam: The Sacred Dance of Tamil Nadu

Bharatanatyam stands as one of India’s most ancient and revered classical dance forms, embodying over two millennia of artistic, spiritual, and cultural evolution. Originating in the temples of Tamil Nadu, this sophisticated art form represents a complete synthesis of music, movement, drama, and devotion. Characterized by its distinctive aesthetic—fixed upper torso, bent legs in aramandi position, intricate footwork, expressive hand gestures (mudras), and profound storytelling through facial expressions—Bharatanatyam transforms the human body into a instrument of divine communication and artistic expression.

The dance’s journey from temple sanctum to global concert stage reflects broader transformations in Indian society, from colonial suppression to nationalist cultural revival to contemporary international recognition. Today, Bharatanatyam serves not only as a living link to India’s ancient artistic traditions but also as a dynamic medium for contemporary expression, practiced by thousands of dancers worldwide who continue to explore its depths while adapting it to modern sensibilities.

Etymology and Meaning

Linguistic Roots

The term “Bharatanatyam” itself is a relatively modern construction, coined in the 1930s during the cultural revival period. The name derives from two Sanskrit components: “Bharata,” referring to the sage Bharata Muni who authored the Natya Shastra (the ancient comprehensive treatise on performing arts), and “natyam,” meaning dance or drama. This etymological construction was deliberate, designed to connect the dance to classical Sanskrit tradition and distance it from its previous association with the term “Sadir,” which had acquired negative colonial-era connotations.

The name also carries a deeper symbolic meaning, often interpreted as an acronym representing the fundamental elements of the art: “Bha” for bhava (emotion/expression), “Ra” for raga (melody), “Ta” for tala (rhythm), and “Natyam” for natya (drama). This interpretation, while likely a retrospective construction rather than original intent, elegantly captures the multi-dimensional nature of the art form.

Related Concepts

Before its renaming, the dance was known as “Sadir” or “Sadir Attam” in Tamil, terms directly connected to its practice in temple spaces. The dancers who performed it were called Devadasis (literally “servants of god”), women dedicated to temple service who maintained elaborate artistic traditions. The practice was also connected to the Tamil concept of “koothu” (performance) and the broader South Indian tradition of temple arts that included music, dance, and ritual performance.

Historical Development

Temple Origins (c. 200 BCE - 1900 CE)

Bharatanatyam’s roots extend deep into Tamil Nadu’s temple culture, with evidence suggesting dance traditions in South Indian temples dating back over two thousand years. Archaeological evidence from the Chola period (9th-13th centuries CE) provides particularly rich documentation, with the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur featuring inscriptions recording the names of dancers and musicians, as well as sculptural representations of dance poses that closely correspond to modern Bharatanatyam positions.

The dance developed within the Devadasi system, where young girls were dedicated to temple service, receiving intensive training in music, dance, and religious ritual. These women formed a sophisticated artistic community, preserving and transmitting complex performance traditions across generations. The dance served as a form of worship, a method of narrating sacred stories, and a means of creating an atmosphere of devotional fervor during temple ceremonies.

The theoretical foundation for the dance came from the Natya Shastra, attributed to sage Bharata Muni and dated variously from 200 BCE to 200 CE, which codified principles of dance, drama, music, and aesthetics that continue to inform Bharatanatyam practice. The dance incorporates the Natya Shastra’s concepts of nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive dance), and natya (drama), along with its systems of mudras (hand gestures), rasas (emotional flavors), and bhavas (emotional states).

Colonial Suppression (1892-1947)

The British colonial period brought profound challenges to traditional temple arts. The anti-nautch movement, emerging in the late 19th century and gaining momentum in the early 20th century, campaigned against temple dancing, portraying it as morally degrading and associating it with prostitution. This movement combined Victorian moral sensibilities, missionary influence, and Indian social reform impulses, resulting in widespread stigmatization of Devadasis and their art.

Various colonial administrations and princely states passed legislation restricting or banning Devadasi dedication ceremonies. The Madras Presidency’s 1947 Devadasi Act criminalized the dedication of girls to temples, effectively ending the traditional system that had sustained the dance for centuries. By the 1920s-30s, Sadir performances had become increasingly rare and socially stigmatized, and the art form faced potential extinction.

Cultural Revival and Reconstruction (1930-1950)

The dance’s salvation came through an unlikely alliance of Indian cultural nationalists, Western-educated elite artists, and remaining traditional practitioners. This revival movement, part of broader efforts to reclaim and redefine Indian cultural identity during the independence struggle, sought to transform temple dance into respectable concert art.

Key figures in this transformation included E. Krishna Iyer, a lawyer and freedom fighter who championed the artistic value of Sadir and performed it himself to challenge gender and caste associations. Most influential was Rukmini Devi Arundale, a Brahmin woman from an elite Theosophist background who studied the dance and founded Kalakshetra in 1936, an institution that would become central to Bharatanatyam’s modern form.

The revival process involved significant reconstruction. The dance was renamed Bharatanatyam, given a new theoretical framework emphasizing connections to Natya Shastra, sanitized of elements considered too erotic or associated with the Devadasi context, and adapted for proscenium stage performance rather than temple spaces. A standardized repertoire called the margam was codified, creating a sequence of pieces from invocatory alarippu through rhythmic jatiswaram and expressive shabdam to the elaborate varnam and devotional padams, concluding with the energetic tillana.

Simultaneously, hereditary practitioners from Devadasi families, particularly from the Thanjavur tradition, continued teaching and performing, with artists like Balasaraswati maintaining connections to older performance styles and arguing for the depth and sophistication of the traditional approach. These parallel streams—the Kalakshetra style and the Thanjavur tradition—would create productive tension in Bharatanatyam’s modern development.

Global Recognition (1950-Present)

Post-independence, Bharatanatyam gained official recognition as one of India’s classical dance forms, receiving government patronage and institutional support. The Sangeet Natak Akademi (National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama), established in 1952, formalized classification systems for classical arts and provided scholarships and awards.

The dance spread far beyond its Tamil origins, becoming popular throughout India and, through diaspora communities and cultural diplomacy, across the world. Major cities globally now have Bharatanatyam schools, and the dance features prominently in international festivals and cultural exchanges. This globalization has brought new practitioners from diverse backgrounds, raising ongoing questions about cultural ownership, authenticity, and appropriate evolution of the tradition.

Key Principles and Characteristics

The Foundation of Nritta (Pure Dance)

Nritta constitutes the abstract, rhythmic dimension of Bharatanatyam, where movement exists primarily for aesthetic pleasure rather than narrative meaning. This aspect showcases the dancer’s technical mastery through precise execution of rhythmic patterns (adavus) synchronized with percussion, particularly the mridangam drum.

The fundamental position in nritta is the aramandi or ardhamandala—a half-sitting position with bent knees turned outward and feet placed firmly apart. This grounded stance provides stability for rapid footwork while creating the distinctive angular aesthetic that characterizes the form. From this base, dancers execute complex combinations of foot strikes, leg positions, hand movements, and torso articulations, all precisely coordinated with rhythmic cycles.

The repertoire includes dozens of standardized adavus (fundamental movement units) that students must master, each with specific footwork patterns, hand positions, and rhythmic structures. These combine into longer sequences and compositions, from the pure abstract beauty of the alarippu and jatiswaram to the rhythmic virtuosity of the tillana.

The Expression of Nritya (Expressive Dance)

Nritya represents the expressive heart of Bharatanatyam, where movement conveys meaning through abhinaya (expression). The Natya Shastra identifies four types of abhinaya: angika (body language), vachika (speech/song), aharya (costume/makeup), and sattvika (internal emotional states manifesting externally).

Central to nritya are hasta mudras—codified hand gestures that function as a visual language. The Natya Shastra describes numerous single-hand (asamyukta hasta) and double-hand (samyukta hasta) mudras, each with specific meanings that can represent objects, actions, concepts, or beings. A single mudra might have multiple meanings depending on context, position, and accompanying facial expression, creating a rich vocabulary for storytelling.

Facial expression (mukhabhinaya) holds equal importance, with precise control of eyes, eyebrows, cheeks, and lips required to convey emotions and character. The dancer must embody different characters within a single performance—gods, demons, lovers, sages—each requiring distinct emotional tones and physical qualities. This dramatic capability allows the soloist to present entire narratives, moving fluidly between roles within and across compositions.

The Drama of Natya

The theatrical dimension of Bharatanatyam appears most prominently in padams, javalis, and the centerpiece varnam. Here, the dancer becomes actor, interpreting lyrical poetry through movement and expression. The texts, typically in Tamil, Telugu, or Sanskrit, explore themes of devotion, longing, love (both human and divine), and philosophical contemplation.

The varnam represents the artistic and technical climax of a traditional performance, combining complex rhythmic passages with extended expressive sections. The dancer must demonstrate both virtuosic footwork and profound emotional depth, often exploring a single lyrical phrase from multiple perspectives, embodying different characters and emotional states.

Musical Foundation

Bharatanatyam exists in intimate relationship with Carnatic (South Indian classical) music. Every movement coordinates with specific rhythmic cycles (talas), melodic frameworks (ragas), and compositional structures. A typical Bharatanatyam ensemble includes a vocalist singing the lyrics and delivering rhythmic syllables (sollukattu), a mridangam player providing percussion, a violin for melodic accompaniment, a flute or veena, and cymbals for keeping time.

The dancer must possess deep musical knowledge, understanding tala systems, recognizing ragas, and responding to improvisational musical elements. The relationship between musician and dancer is collaborative, with each influencing the other’s performance through subtle cues and responses.

Aesthetic Presentation

The visual impact of Bharatanatyam extends beyond movement to encompass costume, jewelry, and makeup, all designed to create a specific aesthetic that enhances the dance’s dramatic and devotional dimensions.

The traditional costume centers on a specially designed silk saree with a fan-shaped pleated piece in front, allowing freedom of leg movement while accentuating the aramandi position. Temple jewelry—designed to resemble ancient South Indian temple ornaments—adorns the dancer’s head, ears, neck, arms, waist, and feet. Ghungroos (ankle bells) add audible dimension to footwork.

Makeup follows classical conventions, with elaborate eye makeup, defined eyebrows, and vibrant lips that enhance facial expressions’ visibility. The hair, typically braided and adorned with flowers and ornaments, represents traditional Tamil aesthetic ideals. These elements combine to transform the dancer’s appearance, distancing the everyday person and creating a ritual, theatrical presence.

Religious and Philosophical Context

Hindu Devotional Foundations

Bharatanatyam developed within Hindu temple contexts, particularly those dedicated to Shiva (in his form as Nataraja, Lord of Dance) and Vishnu. The dance served as a form of worship, with its aesthetic beauty and devotional content offered to the deity. Many traditional compositions express bhakti (devotional love), with the dancer embodying a devotee’s longing for divine union.

The concept of natya (dance/drama) itself holds spiritual significance in Hindu philosophy. Shiva’s cosmic dance (Tandava) represents the cycle of creation and destruction, with dance viewed as a fundamental force in the universe. By performing, dancers participate in this cosmic rhythm, making the art inherently sacred rather than merely entertainment.

The traditional repertoire draws heavily from Hindu mythology and sacred literature, including stories from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, puranic tales of gods and goddesses, and devotional poetry of Tamil saints like the Nayanars (Shaivite) and Alvars (Vaishnavite).

Adaptation Across Traditions

While rooted in Hindu temple practice, modern Bharatanatyam has expanded thematically. Contemporary dancers create works based on Buddhist and Jain themes, secular literature, social issues, and personal narratives. This expansion reflects both the dance’s concert-hall secularization and its recognition as a versatile artistic medium rather than exclusively religious practice.

The philosophical foundations from Natya Shastra—concepts of rasa (aesthetic experience), bhava (emotional state), and the idea that art should produce simultaneous aesthetic pleasure and spiritual elevation—provide frameworks that transcend specific religious boundaries, allowing the form to accommodate diverse thematic content while maintaining its essential artistic principles.

Practical Applications

Traditional Training Methods

Traditional Bharatanatyam training follows the guru-shishya (teacher-student) parampara (lineage) system, emphasizing intensive personal instruction over several years. Students begin with fundamental exercises and adavus, gradually progressing to more complex rhythmic patterns and eventually to expressive pieces.

The learning process emphasizes embodied knowledge—understanding through repeated physical practice rather than primarily intellectual study. Students learn by watching, imitating, and receiving detailed corrections, developing muscle memory for countless movement patterns. Simultaneously, they study the theoretical foundations in Natya Shastra, the meanings of mudras and compositions, and the spiritual and cultural contexts of the art.

The guru-shishya relationship traditionally involved deep personal bonds, with students often living with teachers’ families. Modern institutionalization in schools and academies has modified this model while attempting to preserve its intensive, personalized aspects.

The Arangetram

The arangetram (debut performance) marks a crucial milestone in a dancer’s training. After years of study, typically beginning in childhood, the student presents a complete two-to-three-hour solo margam, demonstrating mastery of both technical and expressive dimensions. This performance, held in a professional venue with full musical accompaniment, represents the guru’s certification that the student has achieved competence to perform independently and potentially teach.

The arangetram carries significant cultural meaning within Indian communities, often being elaborate social events involving substantial family investment. Contemporary debates question whether this tradition has become overly commercialized, with performances sometimes held before students have achieved genuine artistic maturity.

Contemporary Practice

Modern Bharatanatyam exists across a spectrum from conservative preservation of traditional forms to experimental innovation. Some dancers and institutions, particularly those maintaining hereditary lineages, emphasize authentic transmission of received repertoire and style. Others explore choreographic innovation, creating new works that use Bharatanatyam vocabulary to address contemporary themes—environmental issues, gender politics, historical narratives, abstract concepts—or that incorporate elements from other dance traditions.

Professional Bharatanatyam dancers today may perform in traditional margam format, participate in ensemble productions, collaborate with dancers from other forms, or create interdisciplinary works incorporating film, technology, and other media. The form’s practitioners include both professional performing artists and numerous amateurs for whom dance represents cultural connection, physical practice, or personal expression rather than career.

Regional Variations

Stylistic Schools (Bani)

Bharatanatyam encompasses several recognized stylistic schools, each associated with different lineages and geographic origins within Tamil Nadu:

The Thanjavur (or Tanjore) bani, associated with the famous quartet of brothers (Chinnayya, Ponniah, Sivanandam, and Vadivelu) who served the Maratha court at Thanjavur in the 19th century, emphasizes rhythmic complexity, precise geometry, and powerful footwork. This style maintains strong connections to the hereditary Devadasi tradition.

The Pandanallur bani, developed by Meenakshisundaram Pillai and carried forward particularly through his grandson Chokkalingam Pillai, features expansive movements, strong aramandi, and a commanding stage presence. This style became highly influential through its teaching to numerous prominent dancers.

The Vazhuvoor bani, associated with the lineage of Ramiah Pillai, emphasizes fluid grace, delicate expressions, and a softer quality, though maintaining technical rigor.

The Kalakshetra style, while not a traditional bani, represents a distinct approach developed by Rukmini Devi Arundale, incorporating research into sculptural forms, emphasis on spiritual content, elimination of elements considered improper, and a highly refined aesthetic. Kalakshetra’s institutional influence made this approach extremely widespread.

Spread Beyond Tamil Nadu

While originating in Tamil Nadu, Bharatanatyam is now practiced throughout India and globally. This geographic spread has brought practitioners from diverse cultural backgrounds, leading to questions about cultural ownership and appropriate transmission. Some argue that Bharatanatyam can be learned and performed by anyone regardless of origin, emphasizing its aesthetic and technical dimensions. Others maintain that deep understanding requires immersion in Tamil language, Hindu philosophy, and South Indian cultural contexts.

Influence and Legacy

On Indian Society

Bharatanatyam’s transformation from stigmatized “nautch” to celebrated classical art had profound implications for Indian cultural politics. The revival participated in nationalist projects of defining respectable Indian tradition, though this process involved significant erasures of the Devadasi communities whose artistic labor had sustained the form.

The dance became a marker of cultural capital within middle and upper-class Indian society, particularly for girls and young women. Learning Bharatanatyam represented cultivation, connection to tradition, and appropriate feminine accomplishment. This association simultaneously elevated the art’s social status while potentially reducing it to an educational accessory rather than serious artistic practice.

Contemporary discussions increasingly address historical injustices involved in the dance’s transformation—how hereditary artists were marginalized while others gained recognition and how the Devadasi community’s crucial role was often erased from mainstream narratives.

On Art and Literature

Bharatanatyam has profoundly influenced other Indian arts, from its impact on cinema (where dance sequences often reference classical forms) to its inspiration for visual artists, photographers, and writers. The dance’s sculptural qualities and dramatic intensity make it compelling subject matter across media.

The rich theoretical literature surrounding Bharatanatyam—commentaries on Natya Shastra, analyses of specific styles and compositions, biographies of major dancers, and contemporary critical scholarship—contributes significantly to broader discussions of Indian aesthetics, performance theory, and cultural politics.

Global Impact

Bharatanatyam functions as cultural ambassador, introducing global audiences to Indian artistic traditions. International performances, workshops, and diaspora practice have made it one of the most recognizable Indian classical forms worldwide.

Academic institutions globally now include Bharatanatyam in dance curricula, and the form influences contemporary choreographers working across cultural boundaries. This globalization raises complex questions about cultural translation, appropriation, and the evolution of forms beyond their origin contexts.

Challenges and Debates

Authenticity and Innovation

A persistent tension exists between preserving traditional forms and allowing creative innovation. Conservative voices argue that the form’s power lies in authentic transmission of received repertoire and technique, warning against dilution through excessive experimentation. Progressive voices counter that living arts must evolve, that innovation honors tradition by demonstrating its continued relevance, and that rigid preservation leads to ossification.

This debate intensifies around questions of thematic content (should Bharatanatyam address contemporary social issues or maintain traditional devotional focus?), choreographic structure (should new works follow margam format or create new structures?), and fusion (should Bharatanatyam collaborate with other dance forms or maintain stylistic purity?).

Access and Ownership

Questions of who can legitimately learn, perform, and teach Bharatanatyam generate ongoing discussion. Hereditary artists from communities that sustained the tradition for generations sometimes express frustration at being marginalized while others gain prominence and commercial success. Issues of caste, class, and cultural background remain sensitive, particularly given the complex history of the form’s “revival” through appropriation by upper-caste reformers.

Gender questions also arise, though less controversially—while originally performed by women, male dancers now practice Bharatanatyam, sometimes facing questions about appropriateness or authenticity, though many prominent male dancers have achieved recognition.

Commercialization Concerns

The proliferation of Bharatanatyam schools, particularly in urban India and diaspora communities, has created what some view as commercialization threatening artistic standards. Concerns include: arangetrams held for students without adequate preparation, emphasis on external trappings (elaborate costumes and venues) over artistic depth, and teaching by inadequately trained instructors.

Defenders argue that increased accessibility, even with variable quality, allows more people to engage with the tradition and that democratization of previously exclusive art represents progress rather than decline.

Conclusion

Bharatanatyam stands as a testament to Indian cultural resilience and transformation, embodying in its complex history the negotiations between tradition and modernity, local and global, sacred and secular that characterize contemporary India. From its ancient origins in Tamil temple practice through colonial suppression and nationalist revival to current international recognition, the dance has continuously adapted while maintaining aesthetic and philosophical continuity.

The form’s enduring power lies in its synthesis of multiple dimensions—the mathematical precision of rhythmic patterns, the sculptural beauty of body positions, the literary sophistication of expressive content, the spiritual depth of devotional themes, and the athletic rigor of physical execution. This multidimensionality allows Bharatanatyam to remain simultaneously ancient and contemporary, speaking to aesthetic, spiritual, and intellectual aspects of human experience.

As Bharatanatyam moves forward in its third millennium, it faces both opportunities and challenges: How to honor the hereditary communities who preserved it while making it accessible? How to maintain artistic standards while democratizing access? How to preserve essential character while allowing creative evolution? How to remain rooted in South Indian culture while serving as global art form? These questions ensure that Bharatanatyam remains not merely a historical artifact but a living, contested, evolving tradition that continues to generate meaning for its practitioners and audiences worldwide.