Sarnath: Where the Wheel of Dharma First Turned

In a deer park near ancient Varanasi, one of history’s most transformative moments occurred around 528 BCE when Siddhartha Gautama, newly enlightened as the Buddha, delivered his first sermon to five ascetic companions. This event, known as the Dharmachakra Pravartana or “Turning of the Wheel of Dharma,” marked the founding of Buddhism and transformed Sarnath into one of the four most sacred pilgrimage sites in the Buddhist world. For over 1,500 years, Sarnath flourished as a major monastery, center of learning, and architectural wonder, patronized by emperors from Ashoka to the Guptas, before its destruction in the 12th century. The site’s magnificent stupas, monasteries, and especially the Lion Capital of Ashoka—now India’s national emblem—stand as testament to Sarnath’s profound influence on Indian civilization and Buddhist tradition.

Foundation and Sacred Origins

The First Sermon (c. 528 BCE)

Sarnath’s significance began with Buddha’s return from Bodh Gaya, where he had attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. Seeking his former companions—five ascetics who had abandoned him when he gave up extreme austerities—Buddha found them in a deer park called Isipatana (the “place where holy men landed”) near Varanasi. Initially skeptical of their former companion, the five ascetics were so moved by Buddha’s transformed presence that they listened as he expounded the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. This discourse, known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, became the foundation of Buddhist teaching and marked the formal establishment of the Buddhist Sangha (monastic community).

Sacred Geography

The location near Varanasi was spiritually significant even before Buddhism. Varanasi had long been a center of Vedic learning and religious practice, and the deer park was already recognized as a place of spiritual retreat. Buddha’s choice to begin his teaching mission here—rather than at Bodh Gaya where he attained enlightenment or his native Lumbini—demonstrated strategic wisdom, placing his new doctrine at the intellectual and spiritual crossroads of ancient India. The proximity to the Ganges and the city of Kashi (Varanasi) ensured that his message would reach scholars, merchants, and pilgrims from across the subcontinent.

Development as a Monastic Center

Early Buddhist Period (6th-3rd century BCE)

Following Buddha’s first sermon, Sarnath quickly developed as one of Buddhism’s primary centers. The site became a regular destination during Buddha’s own ministry, and after his death, it was established as one of the four essential pilgrimage sites for Buddhists, alongside Lumbini (his birthplace), Bodh Gaya (his enlightenment), and Kushinagar (his death). Early structures were likely modest—simple meditation halls and dwellings for the growing monastic community. These early centuries saw Sarnath serve primarily as a retreat for monks and a destination for pilgrims seeking to walk where Buddha had walked and taught where he had first proclaimed the Dharma.

Architecture and Sacred Spaces

While specific details of the earliest structures are uncertain, the site’s layout followed traditional Buddhist monastic architecture. The complex would have included viharas (residential quarters for monks), chaityas (prayer halls), and open spaces for communal activities and teaching. The deer park itself remained central to the site’s identity, preserving the natural setting where the first sermon occurred. As Buddhism spread and gained royal patronage, these modest beginnings would be transformed into one of ancient India’s most impressive religious complexes.

The Mauryan Transformation

Ashoka’s Patronage (268-232 BCE)

Sarnath’s transformation into a major architectural monument came under Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty. After his conversion to Buddhism following the bloody Kalinga War, Ashoka became Buddhism’s greatest patron. Recognizing Sarnath’s supreme importance as the birthplace of Buddhist teaching, Ashoka commissioned several major structures that would define the site for centuries. He established the Dharmarajika Stupa, one of the earliest Buddhist monuments at Sarnath, to house relics of the Buddha. More famously, Ashoka erected a magnificent stone pillar with an elaborate capital featuring four lions standing back-to-back, supported by a wheel (chakra) and four animals—lion, elephant, bull, and horse.

The Lion Capital Legacy

The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath represents the pinnacle of Mauryan art and has become one of India’s most enduring symbols. The four Asiatic lions, symbolizing power, courage, pride, and confidence, face the four cardinal directions, suggesting Buddhism’s universal message. Below them, the dharma chakra (wheel of law) represents the “turning of the wheel of dharma” that occurred at this very spot. The craftsmanship demonstrates the sophisticated stone-working techniques of the Mauryan period and the empire’s ability to create lasting monuments. When India gained independence in 1947, this Lion Capital was adopted as the national emblem, appearing on all Indian currency and official documents—a remarkable continuity from ancient times to modern nation-building.

Ashoka’s Edicts and Buddhist Mission

Ashoka’s pillar originally stood about 50 feet high and bore inscriptions warning against causing schism in the Buddhist Sangha, demonstrating the emperor’s concern for maintaining unity within the religious community. His patronage transformed Sarnath from a sacred site into an active center of Buddhist learning and practice. The Mauryan period also saw improved facilities for pilgrims, expanded monastic quarters, and the beginning of Sarnath’s role as a center for disseminating Buddhist teachings throughout the empire and beyond.

The Gupta Golden Age

Flourishing Under Gupta Patronage (320-550 CE)

The Gupta period marked Sarnath’s greatest flowering as a center of Buddhist art, architecture, and learning. The Gupta emperors, while primarily Hindu in their personal practice, extended generous patronage to Buddhist institutions. This era saw the construction of the massive Dhamekh Stupa, a cylindrical structure rising over 100 feet high, adorned with intricate geometric and floral patterns carved in stone. The stupa’s name—possibly derived from “Dharma Chakra”—connected it explicitly to Buddha’s first sermon, and its imposing presence made it visible from great distances, drawing pilgrims to the site.

Monastic Expansion

During the Gupta period, Sarnath’s monastery expanded significantly. Archaeological evidence reveals extensive monastic cells arranged around courtyards, large assembly halls, and libraries. Hundreds of monks resided at Sarnath, studying Buddhist texts, practicing meditation, and receiving pilgrims. The site became renowned for its scholarship, though it operated in the shadow of the even more famous Nalanda university located further east. Sarnath’s particular strength was its connection to the origins of Buddhist teaching, making it an essential destination for any serious Buddhist scholar seeking to understand the foundations of the Dharma.

Artistic Achievement

The Gupta period is considered the classical age of Indian art, and Sarnath produced some of Buddhism’s finest sculptures. The Sarnath school of sculpture developed a distinctive style characterized by serene expressions, refined features, and graceful poses. The famous seated Buddha in dharmachakra mudra (the teaching gesture), now in the Sarnath Museum, exemplifies this style—the Buddha’s eyes are half-closed in meditation, his expression radiates inner peace, and his hands form the gesture of teaching, directly referencing his first sermon. These sculptures influenced Buddhist art throughout Asia, as pilgrims and missionaries carried Sarnath’s artistic vision to Southeast Asia, China, and beyond.

Function and Daily Life

Monastic Education

At its height, Sarnath functioned as a comprehensive center for Buddhist learning. Young monks came from across India and beyond to study Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, and meditation practices. The curriculum would have included the Tripitaka (three baskets of Buddhist scripture), Abhidhamma (Buddhist psychology and philosophy), Vinaya (monastic discipline), and meditation techniques. Senior monks served as teachers, and the site likely had extensive libraries of palm-leaf manuscripts preserving Buddhist texts. While less famous than Nalanda for scholastic achievement, Sarnath’s unique status as the site of the first sermon gave it unparalleled spiritual authority.

Pilgrimage and Worship

Sarnath was first and foremost a pilgrimage site. Buddhist faithful from across Asia traveled to walk the same ground where Buddha had taught, to meditate where he had meditated, and to pay homage at the stupas containing relics. Chinese pilgrims like Faxian (5th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE) left detailed accounts of Sarnath in their travel records, describing thriving monasteries, beautiful artwork, and active communities of monks. Pilgrims would perform pradakshina (circumambulation) around the stupas, make offerings, and spend time in meditation and contemplation. The pilgrimage economy supported local communities and helped maintain the monastery’s operations.

Artistic Production

Beyond religious functions, Sarnath was a major center for producing Buddhist art and artifacts. Sculptors carved Buddha images, bodhisattva figures, and narrative reliefs depicting stories from Buddha’s life. These works were created both for the site itself and for export to other Buddhist centers. The distinctive Sarnath style—with its refined proportions, serene expressions, and masterful carving—became highly sought after. Metal workers created ritual objects, while manuscript copyists preserved and reproduced sacred texts. This artistic and literary production made Sarnath a major cultural center contributing to the broader development of Indian civilization.

International Significance

Chinese Pilgrims’ Accounts

Chinese Buddhist pilgrims provide our most detailed historical accounts of Sarnath at its height. Faxian, visiting around 400 CE, described Sarnath as a flourishing center with impressive stupas marking the exact spots where Buddha had performed specific acts during his first sermon. Xuanzang, visiting in the 7th century, recorded even more elaborate details. He described a monastery with 1,500 resident monks, magnificent stupas rising to great heights, and numerous shrines marking events from Buddha’s life. Xuanzang noted the Dharmarajika Stupa, the Dhamekh Stupa, and the Ashoka Pillar, providing measurements and descriptions that have helped modern archaeologists identify and understand the ruins.

Spread of the Sarnath Style

As the site of Buddhism’s founding sermon, Sarnath held unique authority in determining authentic Buddhist practice and artistic representation. The artistic style developed here—particularly the serene, meditative Buddha images—spread throughout the Buddhist world. When Buddhism took root in Southeast Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and Tibet, the iconographic conventions developed at Sarnath influenced how Buddha would be depicted in these distant lands. Pilgrims and missionaries carried small Buddha images from Sarnath as precious relics, and local artists copied these models, disseminating Sarnath’s artistic vision across Asia.

Later Medieval Period

Continued Significance (7th-12th centuries)

Even as Buddhism declined in other parts of India, Sarnath maintained its importance through the early medieval period. The Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar (8th-12th centuries), strong supporters of Buddhism, continued to patronize the site. While not as grand as during the Gupta period, Sarnath remained an active monastic center with resident monks, functioning temples, and regular pilgrim traffic. The site’s unique status as one of the four great pilgrimage destinations ensured its survival even as Buddhism lost ground to resurgent Hinduism and, later, Islam in northern India.

Regional Importance

During this period, Sarnath served as a important regional center for the remaining Buddhist communities in northern India. Monks from Sarnath maintained connections with other Buddhist centers like Nalanda and Vikramashila, participating in scholarly debates and religious councils. The monastery continued to train new monks and preserve Buddhist texts, playing a crucial role in maintaining the tradition even as it faced increasing challenges from changing political and religious circumstances.

Decline and Destruction

Turkish Invasions (late 12th century)

Sarnath’s long history as an active Buddhist center came to a violent end during the Turkish invasions of northern India. In 1194 CE, forces under Qutb-ud-din Aibak, lieutenant of Muhammad of Ghor, swept through the region, systematically destroying Buddhist institutions. Unlike Hindu temples, which were sometimes converted to mosques, Buddhist monasteries were typically demolished completely. The wooden structures at Sarnath were burned, while stone monuments were defaced or dismantled. The Ashoka Pillar was broken, with only the base surviving in place. The monastic libraries, containing irreplaceable manuscripts, were destroyed. Monks were killed or fled, and the resident community dispersed.

Abandonment and Obscurity

Following this destruction, Sarnath was largely abandoned. Local people gradually removed dressed stones from the ruins for use in construction projects, further degrading the remains. The site was partially buried under accumulated earth and vegetation. The great stupas became shapeless mounds, and the precise locations of important events were forgotten. For several centuries, Sarnath existed as ruins in the countryside near Varanasi, its importance known to local tradition but its physical form unrecognizable. Only the massive bulk of the Dhamekh Stupa remained clearly visible, serving as a landmark for travelers but no longer understood as a Buddhist monument by most who saw it.

Rediscovery and Modern Revival

Archaeological Excavation

British antiquarians and archaeologists rediscovered Sarnath’s importance in the 19th century. Alexander Cunningham, founding director of the Archaeological Survey of India, conducted the first systematic excavations in 1835 and later in the 1850s-60s. These excavations revealed the full extent of the site, uncovering monastery foundations, sculpture, inscriptions, and architectural remains. The discovery of the Lion Capital in fragments near the broken pillar base was particularly significant. As excavations continued into the 20th century, the layout of the monastic complex became clear, revealing assembly halls, meditation cells, and multiple stupas.

Modern Buddhist Revival

The 20th century saw a remarkable revival of Sarnath as a living Buddhist site. As Buddhism experienced a renaissance in India and across Asia, Sarnath regained significance as a pilgrimage destination. Buddhist organizations from Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, Japan, and other countries established modern temples near the ancient ruins, creating a new international Buddhist community. The Mulagandhakuti Vihara temple, built by the Maha Bodhi Society, marks the traditional site of Buddha’s first sermon with a modern structure featuring murals depicting the Buddha’s life. These modern developments have transformed Sarnath from a historical site into an active religious center once again.

Archaeological Significance

Major Monuments

The Sarnath archaeological site preserves several major ancient structures. The Dhamekh Stupa, the most prominent monument, stands as a massive cylindrical structure over 100 feet high and 93 feet in diameter, its brick core faced with carved stone panels featuring geometric and floral designs. The Dharmarajika Stupa, though less well-preserved, represents an even earlier structure from the Ashokan period. The foundations of numerous monastic buildings surround these central monuments, revealing a complex that once housed hundreds of monks. The truncated remains of the Ashoka Pillar stand nearby, marking the site’s Mauryan heritage even though the famous capital is now in the museum.

Sarnath Museum

The Sarnath Archaeological Museum, established in 1910, houses one of India’s finest collections of Buddhist art. The museum’s centerpiece is the Lion Capital of Ashoka, displayed in climate-controlled conditions. The collection includes the famous “Preaching Buddha” sculpture from the Gupta period, showing Buddha in the teaching mudra; numerous other Buddha and bodhisattva images; architectural fragments with elaborate carvings; and inscribed pillars and stones documenting the site’s history. The museum provides essential context for understanding Sarnath’s development and appreciating its artistic achievements.

Legacy and Continuing Influence

National Symbol

The Lion Capital’s adoption as India’s national emblem represents Sarnath’s enduring significance. This 2,300-year-old sculpture appears on all Indian currency, government documents, and official seals, connecting modern India directly to Ashoka’s ideals of dharma (righteous duty) and the Buddhist principles of peace and compassion. The motto “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth Alone Triumphs) inscribed below the emblem, though taken from the Upanishads rather than Buddhist texts, reinforces these ethical principles. Thus, Sarnath’s most famous monument continues to serve as a daily reminder of India’s ancient heritage and ethical foundations.

Buddhist Pilgrimage Circuit

Sarnath remains one of the four essential sites in the Buddhist pilgrimage circuit, along with Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, and Kushinagar. Thousands of Buddhist pilgrims from across Asia visit annually, particularly during important festivals. The site has become part of the broader Buddhist tourism infrastructure in India, with the Indian government and Buddhist organizations collaborating to preserve the monuments and accommodate visitors. Modern pilgrims perform many of the same rituals as their ancient predecessors—circumambulating stupas, meditating on Buddha’s teachings, and seeking spiritual inspiration from walking where Buddha walked.

Inspiration for Modern Buddhism

Sarnath’s significance extends beyond physical pilgrimage. The first sermon delivered here—with its systematic exposition of the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Way between extremes—provided the foundational framework for all subsequent Buddhist teaching. Modern Buddhist teachers and scholars continue to return to this original discourse as the authoritative statement of Buddha’s insights. The archaeological rediscovery of Sarnath in the 19th century contributed to Buddhism’s global spread, providing physical evidence of Buddhism’s ancient roots and inspiring both Asian Buddhists and Western converts. The site serves as tangible proof of Buddhism’s historical reality and India’s role as its birthplace.

World Heritage Recognition

Sarnath’s significance has been recognized through various preservation efforts and awards. The site is protected under Indian law as a monument of national importance, with the Archaeological Survey of India responsible for its preservation. It has been proposed for UNESCO World Heritage status as part of a broader nomination of Buddhist sites in India. These designations ensure that Sarnath’s monuments will be preserved for future generations while making them accessible to scholars, pilgrims, and tourists from around the world.

Visiting Sarnath Today

Modern visitors to Sarnath encounter both ancient ruins and living Buddhist practice. The archaeological park preserves the ancient stupas and monastery foundations, with informative displays explaining the site’s history. The Dhamekh Stupa remains an impressive sight, its carved stone panels still visible after 1,500 years. The broken Ashoka Pillar stands in its original location, while the Lion Capital itself can be viewed in the climate-controlled museum nearby. Modern temples built by Buddhist communities from Thailand, Tibet, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar surround the ancient site, their diverse architectural styles representing Buddhism’s spread across Asia.

The site is easily accessible from Varanasi, just 10 kilometers away, making it a popular destination for tourists visiting that ancient city. The tranquil deer park, reminiscent of the original setting where Buddha taught, provides a peaceful contrast to Varanasi’s bustling streets. Visitors can walk the same grounds where Buddha delivered his first sermon, meditate in the shadow of stupas built by Ashoka, and examine artistic masterpieces from the Gupta golden age—all while witnessing contemporary Buddhist devotion in the modern temples.

Conclusion

Sarnath stands as one of the most significant sites in both Indian and Buddhist history. Here, in a humble deer park, a transformative teaching was first voiced that would eventually reach across Asia and around the world. The site’s 1,500-year history as an active monastery demonstrates Buddhism’s deep roots in Indian civilization, while its artistic achievements influenced religious art across multiple cultures. The patronage it received from emperors like Ashoka and the Guptas shows how Indian rulers supported religious diversity and invested in monumental architecture to express their values. Though destroyed in the 12th century, Sarnath has been reborn in modern times as both a protected archaeological site and a living pilgrimage destination. The Lion Capital’s role as India’s national emblem ensures that Sarnath remains relevant not just to Buddhists but to all Indians, connecting the modern nation to ancient ideals of truth, dharma, and righteous rule. In its ruins and revivals, Sarnath embodies the resilience of spiritual traditions and the enduring human quest for enlightenment that began here over 2,500 years ago.